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2024年09月14日
サピアの「言語」と魯迅の「阿Ｑ正伝」４
1.3 母語の構造－サピア・ウォーフの仮説
サピアと彼の弟子ウォーフの主張は、母語の異なる話し手は相互理解が難しいとか、異なる言語間の完全な翻訳は不可能であるといった強いものではなく、もう少し弱い立場に立った言語の相対性といえる。（サピア：1998）
サピア・ウォーフの仮説：母語の構造とは、言語から独立した思考、特に人の認知能力に対する影響が強い。
この仮説に関する一般的な解釈は、言語が思考に少なからず影響を与えるという立場を取る。しかし、思考のどういう側面に影響を与えるのであろうか。思考の場合は、対象のとらえ方や判断の仕方に関する高次の認知能力が問題になる。
アメリカの言語学は当初、音へのこだわりがあり、音と構文を中心に研究が進められた。その後、1970年ぐらいまで個々に扱われてきた言語理論が少しずつ融合されていく。1980年代から1990年代にかけては、コンピューターの発達もあり多くの研究分野で新しい試みが生まれた。例えば、言語学では生成文法と論理文法を組み合わせたＧＰＳＧ（一般化句構造文法：Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar）（1985）やＨＰＳＧ（主要部駆動句構造文法:Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar）（1994）がそれに当たる。また、こうした理論や方法論を使用する作品分析も見られるようになってきた。（水谷：1998、花村：2005）いずれも人間の認知能力を考えるための試みである。
知覚や記憶の場合も言語のみならず認知能力が問題になる。（例えば、第一章の表1参照。）どういう記憶が残りやすいのか、記憶ごとの結びつきはどうなのかを考えると、社会共同体ごとに違いが見えてくる。一般的に、既知の情報については推論を用いて、未知の情報についてはカテゴリー化をして我々は情報を処理している。
未知の情報を処理する際に使用するカテゴリー化は、母語の構造により異なってくる。中国語と日本語は、色彩表現のカテゴリー化に違いがあり。例えば、日本語の青という色名の中国語を考えてみよう。空とか海の色を表す時に、中国語では藍（蓝）を用いて、蓝天（青空）や蓝色的大海（青い海）のようにいう。また、青信号、草木、水などの表現は、中国語では緑を用いて绿灯（青信号）、绿叶（青葉）、碧绿的湖（青々とした湖水）という。一方、日本語と同様に青を用いて、青马（青馬）とか青菜（青い野菜）という表現もある。（小学館中日辞典）つまり、中国語の色の表現は、日本語に比べて具体的でかつ多用といえる。
サピア・ウォーフの仮説を現代の視点からとらえ直すには、日常の生活に密着した習慣的な思考と動的な言語や思考の概念を取り入れることが重要になる。つまり、思考の意味するところを広げて、言語行為による慣習が文化とか社会の認知にも影響を及ぼしているとするのが経験から見て適切である。
花村嘉英（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より
サピアと彼の弟子ウォーフの主張は、母語の異なる話し手は相互理解が難しいとか、異なる言語間の完全な翻訳は不可能であるといった強いものではなく、もう少し弱い立場に立った言語の相対性といえる。（サピア：1998）
サピア・ウォーフの仮説：母語の構造とは、言語から独立した思考、特に人の認知能力に対する影響が強い。
この仮説に関する一般的な解釈は、言語が思考に少なからず影響を与えるという立場を取る。しかし、思考のどういう側面に影響を与えるのであろうか。思考の場合は、対象のとらえ方や判断の仕方に関する高次の認知能力が問題になる。
アメリカの言語学は当初、音へのこだわりがあり、音と構文を中心に研究が進められた。その後、1970年ぐらいまで個々に扱われてきた言語理論が少しずつ融合されていく。1980年代から1990年代にかけては、コンピューターの発達もあり多くの研究分野で新しい試みが生まれた。例えば、言語学では生成文法と論理文法を組み合わせたＧＰＳＧ（一般化句構造文法：Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar）（1985）やＨＰＳＧ（主要部駆動句構造文法:Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar）（1994）がそれに当たる。また、こうした理論や方法論を使用する作品分析も見られるようになってきた。（水谷：1998、花村：2005）いずれも人間の認知能力を考えるための試みである。
知覚や記憶の場合も言語のみならず認知能力が問題になる。（例えば、第一章の表1参照。）どういう記憶が残りやすいのか、記憶ごとの結びつきはどうなのかを考えると、社会共同体ごとに違いが見えてくる。一般的に、既知の情報については推論を用いて、未知の情報についてはカテゴリー化をして我々は情報を処理している。
未知の情報を処理する際に使用するカテゴリー化は、母語の構造により異なってくる。中国語と日本語は、色彩表現のカテゴリー化に違いがあり。例えば、日本語の青という色名の中国語を考えてみよう。空とか海の色を表す時に、中国語では藍（蓝）を用いて、蓝天（青空）や蓝色的大海（青い海）のようにいう。また、青信号、草木、水などの表現は、中国語では緑を用いて绿灯（青信号）、绿叶（青葉）、碧绿的湖（青々とした湖水）という。一方、日本語と同様に青を用いて、青马（青馬）とか青菜（青い野菜）という表現もある。（小学館中日辞典）つまり、中国語の色の表現は、日本語に比べて具体的でかつ多用といえる。
サピア・ウォーフの仮説を現代の視点からとらえ直すには、日常の生活に密着した習慣的な思考と動的な言語や思考の概念を取り入れることが重要になる。つまり、思考の意味するところを広げて、言語行為による慣習が文化とか社会の認知にも影響を及ぼしているとするのが経験から見て適切である。
花村嘉英（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より
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サピアの「言語」と魯迅の「阿Ｑ正伝」３
1.2 言語構造の類型
諸言語を分類するために、世界中の言語の文法過程を研究し続けたサピアは、言語概念を次の4つに分類した。（Ⅰ）根本概念、（Ⅱ）派生概念、（Ⅲ）具体的関係概念、（Ⅳ）純粋関係概念。（サピア：1998）
根本型 派生概念（Ⅱ）具体的関係概念（Ⅲ）純粋関係概念（Ⅳ）手法（融合度）総合度 例
Ａ単純な純粋関係（中国語）（Ⅱ）―（Ⅲ）― （Ⅳ）a 手法 孤立的 総合 分析的
Ｂ複雑な純粋関係（ポリネシア語）（Ⅱ）b, (d) （Ⅲ）―（Ⅳ）a 手法 膠着的孤立的 総合 分析的 （日本語）（Ⅱ）b （Ⅲ）b（Ⅳ）b 手法 膠着的 総合 分析的
Ｃ単純な混合関係（フランス語）（Ⅱ）(c) （Ⅲ）c, (d)（Ⅳ）a 手法 融合的 総合 分析的（少し総合的）
Ｄ複雑な混合関係（英語）（Ⅱ）c（Ⅲ）c, d（Ⅳ）a 手法 融合的 総合 分析的
（ラテン語、ギリシア語）（Ⅱ）c, d（Ⅲ）c, d（Ⅳ）― 手法 融合的（象徴的） 総合 総合的
（ドイツ語）（Ⅱ）c（Ⅲ）c, d（Ⅳ）c 手法 融合的 総合 総合的
表1の縦の分類は、概念を言語記号に移すときに生じる問題である。一つは、語幹概念を純粋なまま保持しているかどうか、また一つは、基本的な関係概念に具体概念が混ざるかどうかにより、純粋関係言語（Ａ：単純、Ｂ：複雑）と混合関係言語（Ｃ：単純、Ｄ：複雑）を区別している。
一方、横の分類で（Ⅱ）の派生概念は、語幹要素に非語幹要素を接辞し、語幹要素に特定の意義を添加する。例えば、farmerのerは行為者を表す接尾辞のため、farmerという語は特定の動詞の習慣的な主語になる。
（Ⅲ）の具体的関係概念も語幹要素に非語幹要素を接辞することで表現されるが、派生概念より隔たりが大きい（例、booksのsやdepthのth）。但し、他の類と混同があるため、避けられる。
（Ⅳ）の純粋関係概念は、命題中の具体的な要素を相互に関係づけて、明確な統語形式を与える（例、数、性、格の照応）。表1の横の区分は、言語に表現されている概念を分類するためにある。
これに融合度と総合度が加わる。融合度は、孤立、膠着、融合、象徴を特徴とする。例えば、日本語のような膠着型言語が並置の手法で接辞添加をするのに対して、ラテン語のような融合型言語は、定義上非膠着言語になる。
また、総合度は、分析的と総合的に分けられる。分析的言語とは、複数の概念を結合して単一語にすることがない言語（例、中国語）または節約しながらそうする言語である（例、英語、仏語）。また、ポリネシア語は語順が中国語よりも揺れていて、複雑な派生に向かう傾向がある。
総合的言語とは、概念が密で語がより豊富な内容を持っており、かつ具体的な意味の射程を適度な範囲に保とうとする言語である（例、ラテン語）。ラテン語とギリシア語は、基本的に屈折型の言語であり、融合的な手法を取る。この融合には、外的な音声的意味と内的な心理的意味がある。
日本語は、語幹概念を純粋なまま保持しながら、さらに不可分の要素（例、動詞や形容詞の活用形）を集める言語とする（Ｂタイプ）。命題を組み立てるときは、具体的な要素を相互に関係づける（例、数、格助詞）。（Ⅰ）から（Ⅳ）までの言語概念は、中国語と対応させている。
ドイツ語は、基本的な関係概念に具体概念を混ぜながら、不可分の要素（例、動詞、形容詞、名詞の活用形）を集める言語とする（Ｄタイプ）。命題を組み立てるときは、やはり具体的な要素を相互に関係づける（例、数、性、格の照応）。（Ⅰ）から（Ⅳ）までの言語概念は、英語と対応させている。
表１の中でa、b、c、dは、補助タイプである。それぞれ順に、孤立的、膠着的、融合的、象徴的になる。また数学的には、次のような公式が成り立つ。膠着c (goodness) = a + b、規則的融合（強） c (books) = a + (b - x) + x 、不規則的融合（弱） c (depth) =（a - x） + (b - y) + (x + y) 、象徴的融合c (geese) =（a - x）+ x。
花村嘉英（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より
諸言語を分類するために、世界中の言語の文法過程を研究し続けたサピアは、言語概念を次の4つに分類した。（Ⅰ）根本概念、（Ⅱ）派生概念、（Ⅲ）具体的関係概念、（Ⅳ）純粋関係概念。（サピア：1998）
根本型 派生概念（Ⅱ）具体的関係概念（Ⅲ）純粋関係概念（Ⅳ）手法（融合度）総合度 例
Ａ単純な純粋関係（中国語）（Ⅱ）―（Ⅲ）― （Ⅳ）a 手法 孤立的 総合 分析的
Ｂ複雑な純粋関係（ポリネシア語）（Ⅱ）b, (d) （Ⅲ）―（Ⅳ）a 手法 膠着的孤立的 総合 分析的 （日本語）（Ⅱ）b （Ⅲ）b（Ⅳ）b 手法 膠着的 総合 分析的
Ｃ単純な混合関係（フランス語）（Ⅱ）(c) （Ⅲ）c, (d)（Ⅳ）a 手法 融合的 総合 分析的（少し総合的）
Ｄ複雑な混合関係（英語）（Ⅱ）c（Ⅲ）c, d（Ⅳ）a 手法 融合的 総合 分析的
（ラテン語、ギリシア語）（Ⅱ）c, d（Ⅲ）c, d（Ⅳ）― 手法 融合的（象徴的） 総合 総合的
（ドイツ語）（Ⅱ）c（Ⅲ）c, d（Ⅳ）c 手法 融合的 総合 総合的
表1の縦の分類は、概念を言語記号に移すときに生じる問題である。一つは、語幹概念を純粋なまま保持しているかどうか、また一つは、基本的な関係概念に具体概念が混ざるかどうかにより、純粋関係言語（Ａ：単純、Ｂ：複雑）と混合関係言語（Ｃ：単純、Ｄ：複雑）を区別している。
一方、横の分類で（Ⅱ）の派生概念は、語幹要素に非語幹要素を接辞し、語幹要素に特定の意義を添加する。例えば、farmerのerは行為者を表す接尾辞のため、farmerという語は特定の動詞の習慣的な主語になる。
（Ⅲ）の具体的関係概念も語幹要素に非語幹要素を接辞することで表現されるが、派生概念より隔たりが大きい（例、booksのsやdepthのth）。但し、他の類と混同があるため、避けられる。
（Ⅳ）の純粋関係概念は、命題中の具体的な要素を相互に関係づけて、明確な統語形式を与える（例、数、性、格の照応）。表1の横の区分は、言語に表現されている概念を分類するためにある。
これに融合度と総合度が加わる。融合度は、孤立、膠着、融合、象徴を特徴とする。例えば、日本語のような膠着型言語が並置の手法で接辞添加をするのに対して、ラテン語のような融合型言語は、定義上非膠着言語になる。
また、総合度は、分析的と総合的に分けられる。分析的言語とは、複数の概念を結合して単一語にすることがない言語（例、中国語）または節約しながらそうする言語である（例、英語、仏語）。また、ポリネシア語は語順が中国語よりも揺れていて、複雑な派生に向かう傾向がある。
総合的言語とは、概念が密で語がより豊富な内容を持っており、かつ具体的な意味の射程を適度な範囲に保とうとする言語である（例、ラテン語）。ラテン語とギリシア語は、基本的に屈折型の言語であり、融合的な手法を取る。この融合には、外的な音声的意味と内的な心理的意味がある。
日本語は、語幹概念を純粋なまま保持しながら、さらに不可分の要素（例、動詞や形容詞の活用形）を集める言語とする（Ｂタイプ）。命題を組み立てるときは、具体的な要素を相互に関係づける（例、数、格助詞）。（Ⅰ）から（Ⅳ）までの言語概念は、中国語と対応させている。
ドイツ語は、基本的な関係概念に具体概念を混ぜながら、不可分の要素（例、動詞、形容詞、名詞の活用形）を集める言語とする（Ｄタイプ）。命題を組み立てるときは、やはり具体的な要素を相互に関係づける（例、数、性、格の照応）。（Ⅰ）から（Ⅳ）までの言語概念は、英語と対応させている。
表１の中でa、b、c、dは、補助タイプである。それぞれ順に、孤立的、膠着的、融合的、象徴的になる。また数学的には、次のような公式が成り立つ。膠着c (goodness) = a + b、規則的融合（強） c (books) = a + (b - x) + x 、不規則的融合（弱） c (depth) =（a - x） + (b - y) + (x + y) 、象徴的融合c (geese) =（a - x）+ x。
花村嘉英（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より
サピアの「言語」と魯迅の「阿Ｑ正伝」２
1 言語と思考
1.1 サピアの特徴と魅力
20世紀を代表するアメリカの言語学者エドワード・サピア の特徴と魅力について彼の著書「言語」を軸にしてまとめいく。サピアは、言語の普遍性から個別言語の特徴へと話を進め、人類学も視野に入れるために、人種や言語、文化や文学についても自論を述べている。
この論文は、サピアの言語研究を中日の観点からまとめていきます。サピアの言語論に日本語の分析はないものの、個別言語に話が及ぶと展開が見られるためである。
サピアの言語研究の本質は、6つの文法過程にある。それは、語順、複合語（造語）、接辞添加（接頭辞、接尾辞、接中辞）、語幹要素または文法要素の内部変容、重複及びアクセントの相違です。中日両言語で類似している性質は、複合語と重複の過程である。一方、異なる性質は、語順、接辞の添加、文法要素の内部変容そしてアクセントである。
複合語（造語）は中日両語で使用されおり、その過程で二つ以上の語幹要素が結合して、単一語が形成される。これは、要素間の関係を暗示するとともに、語順の過程とも関連する。中国語は語順が厳格なため、複合語を発達させる傾向にある。日本語よりも中国語の方がその数は圧倒的に多い。例えば、語連続の「人権」とか慣習化された並置の「農夫」などがそれである。サピア（1998）によると、これらの複合語の意味は、構成要素の語源的な意味とは異なるものになる。
重複については、日本語の「思い思い」のように、語の全体または一部を繰り返す畳語が考えられる。朝鮮語、中国語、アイヌ語には見られる特徴だが、印欧語やウラル語族、アルタイ諸語には見られない。
次に、中日両言語の異なる性質について見てみよう。言語には語順が自由なものと固定のものとがある。しかし、大半はその中間に位置する。前者の代表としてはラテン語が、後者の代表としては中国語があげられる。日本語は、語順がかなり自由な言語である。ドイツ語やオランダ語などのゲルマン系の言語も、類型論的には部分的に語順が自由な言語といわれている。中国語の語順はＳＶＯであり、日本語やドイツ語はＳＯＶになる。
文法関係を表す際、中国語は語順を頼りにし、日本語や韓国語は助詞（てにをは）を用いる。これが中国語は孤立語で、日本語が膠着語と呼ばれる理由である。中国語の語順は確かに英語に近いが、中国語には語尾変化や活用がない。日本語のようなＳＯＶ型は、世界の言語の約半分、英語や中国語などのＳＶＯ型は35％、ポリネシア語などのＶＳＯ型は10％余りを占る。
こうした語順の違いは、言語的な発想にも影響を及ぼす。山本（2002）によると、中国語は述語が主語のすぐ後に来るため、話し手や書き手の意図が肯定なのか否定なのかは早い段階で明らかになる。一方、日本語は述語が最後に来るため、話し手や書き手の意図が肯定なのか否定なのかは最後まで行かないとわからない。サピアは、こうした人の思考様式こそが言語習慣を規定するとし、弟子のウォーフと共に立てた仮説は、今でも語り継がれている。
また、中日の翻訳を考えると、語順のみならず推論も重要なポイントになる。発想は、一般的に発見とか発明に問われるものだが、文章を書く際にも語順とか段落の作り方または話の流れに言語上の小さな発想があると考えられる。発想はまた文系と理系とで異なるし、文理で組み立て方やまとめ方も違う。つまり、こうした違いを調節するためにシナジー論がある。
サピア（1998）よると、接辞の添加には、接頭辞、接尾辞そして接中辞がある。その中で接尾辞の添加が最も普通である。中国語は、語幹要素として文法的に独立した要素を利用しない特別な言語である。しかし、日本語の接辞「的」は、中国語の「的」からの影響であろうし、孩子や杯子の「子」も中国語の接辞といえる。
文法要素の内部変容とは、語の内部の母音または子音を変化させる過程である。日本語の場合は、動詞や形容詞の活用にそれが見られる。しかし、中国語には活用がないため、英語の母音変化（例えば、sing、sang、sung、song）に類似した例は見当たらない。
アクセントは、中国語も日本語もピッチアクセントである。例えば、中国語のfa［一声］（発送する）とfa［四声］（頭髪）のようなアクセントの交替は、声調の差異が必ずしも動詞と名詞を区別するわけではない。
花村嘉英（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より
1.1 サピアの特徴と魅力
20世紀を代表するアメリカの言語学者エドワード・サピア の特徴と魅力について彼の著書「言語」を軸にしてまとめいく。サピアは、言語の普遍性から個別言語の特徴へと話を進め、人類学も視野に入れるために、人種や言語、文化や文学についても自論を述べている。
この論文は、サピアの言語研究を中日の観点からまとめていきます。サピアの言語論に日本語の分析はないものの、個別言語に話が及ぶと展開が見られるためである。
サピアの言語研究の本質は、6つの文法過程にある。それは、語順、複合語（造語）、接辞添加（接頭辞、接尾辞、接中辞）、語幹要素または文法要素の内部変容、重複及びアクセントの相違です。中日両言語で類似している性質は、複合語と重複の過程である。一方、異なる性質は、語順、接辞の添加、文法要素の内部変容そしてアクセントである。
複合語（造語）は中日両語で使用されおり、その過程で二つ以上の語幹要素が結合して、単一語が形成される。これは、要素間の関係を暗示するとともに、語順の過程とも関連する。中国語は語順が厳格なため、複合語を発達させる傾向にある。日本語よりも中国語の方がその数は圧倒的に多い。例えば、語連続の「人権」とか慣習化された並置の「農夫」などがそれである。サピア（1998）によると、これらの複合語の意味は、構成要素の語源的な意味とは異なるものになる。
重複については、日本語の「思い思い」のように、語の全体または一部を繰り返す畳語が考えられる。朝鮮語、中国語、アイヌ語には見られる特徴だが、印欧語やウラル語族、アルタイ諸語には見られない。
次に、中日両言語の異なる性質について見てみよう。言語には語順が自由なものと固定のものとがある。しかし、大半はその中間に位置する。前者の代表としてはラテン語が、後者の代表としては中国語があげられる。日本語は、語順がかなり自由な言語である。ドイツ語やオランダ語などのゲルマン系の言語も、類型論的には部分的に語順が自由な言語といわれている。中国語の語順はＳＶＯであり、日本語やドイツ語はＳＯＶになる。
文法関係を表す際、中国語は語順を頼りにし、日本語や韓国語は助詞（てにをは）を用いる。これが中国語は孤立語で、日本語が膠着語と呼ばれる理由である。中国語の語順は確かに英語に近いが、中国語には語尾変化や活用がない。日本語のようなＳＯＶ型は、世界の言語の約半分、英語や中国語などのＳＶＯ型は35％、ポリネシア語などのＶＳＯ型は10％余りを占る。
こうした語順の違いは、言語的な発想にも影響を及ぼす。山本（2002）によると、中国語は述語が主語のすぐ後に来るため、話し手や書き手の意図が肯定なのか否定なのかは早い段階で明らかになる。一方、日本語は述語が最後に来るため、話し手や書き手の意図が肯定なのか否定なのかは最後まで行かないとわからない。サピアは、こうした人の思考様式こそが言語習慣を規定するとし、弟子のウォーフと共に立てた仮説は、今でも語り継がれている。
また、中日の翻訳を考えると、語順のみならず推論も重要なポイントになる。発想は、一般的に発見とか発明に問われるものだが、文章を書く際にも語順とか段落の作り方または話の流れに言語上の小さな発想があると考えられる。発想はまた文系と理系とで異なるし、文理で組み立て方やまとめ方も違う。つまり、こうした違いを調節するためにシナジー論がある。
サピア（1998）よると、接辞の添加には、接頭辞、接尾辞そして接中辞がある。その中で接尾辞の添加が最も普通である。中国語は、語幹要素として文法的に独立した要素を利用しない特別な言語である。しかし、日本語の接辞「的」は、中国語の「的」からの影響であろうし、孩子や杯子の「子」も中国語の接辞といえる。
文法要素の内部変容とは、語の内部の母音または子音を変化させる過程である。日本語の場合は、動詞や形容詞の活用にそれが見られる。しかし、中国語には活用がないため、英語の母音変化（例えば、sing、sang、sung、song）に類似した例は見当たらない。
アクセントは、中国語も日本語もピッチアクセントである。例えば、中国語のfa［一声］（発送する）とfa［四声］（頭髪）のようなアクセントの交替は、声調の差異が必ずしも動詞と名詞を区別するわけではない。
花村嘉英（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より
サピアの「言語」と魯迅の「阿Ｑ正伝」１
【要旨】
魯迅の「阿Ｑ正伝」（1921）を分析しながら、シナジーのメタファーを作成していく。前半は中国語と日本語から見えてくる思考様式の違いをサピアの「言語」に基づいて考える。魯迅は、学生時代に日本に留学しており、彼自身も中日の思考様式の違いについて思うところがあった。そして、当時の中国人が患っていた「馬々虎々」という精神的な病を嫌って、「阿Ｑ正伝」の主人公阿Ｑに自分を重ねてそれを強く人民に訴えた。
こうした魯迅の作家人生からシナジーのメタファーを作るために、後半は作品のテーマである「馬々虎々」を記憶のモデルとリンクさせながら、「阿Ｑ正伝」に見られるカオスの世界を説明していく。
花村嘉英（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より
魯迅の「阿Ｑ正伝」（1921）を分析しながら、シナジーのメタファーを作成していく。前半は中国語と日本語から見えてくる思考様式の違いをサピアの「言語」に基づいて考える。魯迅は、学生時代に日本に留学しており、彼自身も中日の思考様式の違いについて思うところがあった。そして、当時の中国人が患っていた「馬々虎々」という精神的な病を嫌って、「阿Ｑ正伝」の主人公阿Ｑに自分を重ねてそれを強く人民に訴えた。
こうした魯迅の作家人生からシナジーのメタファーを作るために、後半は作品のテーマである「馬々虎々」を記憶のモデルとリンクさせながら、「阿Ｑ正伝」に見られるカオスの世界を説明していく。
花村嘉英（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より
Chaotic effect expected from “A Madman’s Diary” 8 －Consideration from cognitive linguistics
Passersby and children will cannibalize, while they also fear being eaten. They are suspicious of each other. This symptom represents disturbance of ego (Table 6). Self-other consciousness loses shape and becomes fuzzy, and therefore one feels that their secrets and ideas are known to everyone.
Disturbance of ego
[Brain activity 4]
Process of cognitive ability ①Perception and attention
Abstraction of elements
[Perception] While they will cannibalize, they are scared of being eaten.
[Attention] suspicious eyes
Process of cognitive ability ②Learning and memory
Abstraction of elements
[External input] Passerby and children will cannibalize.
[Schema] Cannibals.
[Existing knowledge] They are scared of being eaten.
[Learning] They are suspicious of each other.
Process of cognitive ability ③Planning and reasoning
Abstraction of elements
[Planning] Madman will reform cannibals.
[Problem analysis] This is a gate and only a checking station. They participate in the gang and encourage and check each other, and therefore they would never cross the gate.
[Problem resolution] If they could change, they would be happy. Madman supposes that they should say, “do not cannibalize.”
[Reasoning] They properly set up and put madness upon Madman. This is their usual practice.
A schizophrenic patient experiences constant stress and therefore exhibits disorganized symptoms lacking unity of behavior (Table 7). For example, when the Madman returned to his room, it was in complete darkness. However, after some time, the ceiling beams swung widely overhead under physical strain, and he feared they might attempt to kill him, but the weight turned out to be false and he struggled to sneak out.
Disturbance of thinking
[Brain activity 5]
Process of cognitive ability ①Perception and attention
Abstraction of elements
[Perception]The room was entirely dark and beams swung overhead under the physical strain.
[Attention] Pressure.
Process of cognitive ability ②Learning and memory
Abstraction of elements
[External input] Too heavy to move.
[Schema] Killing.
[Existing knowledge] Suicide.
[Learning] Madman struggled to sneak out. He was sweaty all over.
Process of cognitive ability ③Planning and reasoning
Abstraction of elements
[Planning] Madman will reform cannibals.
[Problem analysis] Someone no longer cannibalized and became a civilized human being. Someone cannibalized continuously. They would like to cannibalize me.
[Problem resolution] If they could change, they would be happy. Madman supposes that they should say, “do not cannibalize.”
[Reasoning] Reform from the heart. Cannibals cannot get around in this world.
The brothers considered their young sister pretty, and therefore the input-output of the two men should be similar at first. However, when the Madman awakened the second time, the output was different because his old brother said that they could only expect their young sister to be cannibalized.
Certainly, the Madman’s madness turns freedom of thought and logic into disorganized symptoms that produce wakefulness (Table 8). But he has no common sense as a healthy person, and therefore rarely engages in dialogue. The Madman’s thought process was sinking into the primordial fear lurking behind Chinese society at the time.
Regarding cannibals, there are the people who, as children, never cannibalize. Therefore, alarm bells are set ringing for the people of future generations.
Disturbance of thinking
[Brain activity 6]
Process of cognitive ability ①Perception and attention
Abstraction of elements
[Perception] The cry of mother.
[Attention] Comparison.
Process of cognitive ability ②Learning and memory
Abstraction of elements
[External input] His five-year-old little sister was cannibalized by his old brother.
[Schema] When his parents are sick, he repays them by giving his flesh.
[Existing knowledge] Repayment is virtue.
[Learning] Madman felt a pang of sadness hearing his mother’s cry on that day.
Process of cognitive ability ③Planning and reasoning
Abstraction of elements
[Planning] Madman will reform cannibals.
[Problem analysis] There are records of cannibalism for four thousand years. Madman knows. He rarely meets a civilized human being.
[Problem resolution] Save children.
[Reasoning] There may be some children who never cannibalize.
The story of the Madman is summarized as follows. If people give him a mysterious glare and they would cannibalize him, they could be cannibals. But if they could cross a line, they could become civilized human beings. While they are cannibals, however, they teach their children cannibalism, and therefore future generations will become and raise cannibals.
4 Conclusion
I analyzed Luxun’s “A Madman’s Diary” using the method of cognitive linguistics to seek a synergic metaphor similar to “Thomas Mann and Fuzzy logic.” I obtained the synergic metaphor of “Luxun and Chaos” by using the language and memory method to derive the chaotic features of non-linearity and indeterminism from the behavior of cannibals and the Madman.
花村嘉英著（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より translated by Yoshihisa Hanamura
Disturbance of ego
[Brain activity 4]
Process of cognitive ability ①Perception and attention
Abstraction of elements
[Perception] While they will cannibalize, they are scared of being eaten.
[Attention] suspicious eyes
Process of cognitive ability ②Learning and memory
Abstraction of elements
[External input] Passerby and children will cannibalize.
[Schema] Cannibals.
[Existing knowledge] They are scared of being eaten.
[Learning] They are suspicious of each other.
Process of cognitive ability ③Planning and reasoning
Abstraction of elements
[Planning] Madman will reform cannibals.
[Problem analysis] This is a gate and only a checking station. They participate in the gang and encourage and check each other, and therefore they would never cross the gate.
[Problem resolution] If they could change, they would be happy. Madman supposes that they should say, “do not cannibalize.”
[Reasoning] They properly set up and put madness upon Madman. This is their usual practice.
A schizophrenic patient experiences constant stress and therefore exhibits disorganized symptoms lacking unity of behavior (Table 7). For example, when the Madman returned to his room, it was in complete darkness. However, after some time, the ceiling beams swung widely overhead under physical strain, and he feared they might attempt to kill him, but the weight turned out to be false and he struggled to sneak out.
Disturbance of thinking
[Brain activity 5]
Process of cognitive ability ①Perception and attention
Abstraction of elements
[Perception]The room was entirely dark and beams swung overhead under the physical strain.
[Attention] Pressure.
Process of cognitive ability ②Learning and memory
Abstraction of elements
[External input] Too heavy to move.
[Schema] Killing.
[Existing knowledge] Suicide.
[Learning] Madman struggled to sneak out. He was sweaty all over.
Process of cognitive ability ③Planning and reasoning
Abstraction of elements
[Planning] Madman will reform cannibals.
[Problem analysis] Someone no longer cannibalized and became a civilized human being. Someone cannibalized continuously. They would like to cannibalize me.
[Problem resolution] If they could change, they would be happy. Madman supposes that they should say, “do not cannibalize.”
[Reasoning] Reform from the heart. Cannibals cannot get around in this world.
The brothers considered their young sister pretty, and therefore the input-output of the two men should be similar at first. However, when the Madman awakened the second time, the output was different because his old brother said that they could only expect their young sister to be cannibalized.
Certainly, the Madman’s madness turns freedom of thought and logic into disorganized symptoms that produce wakefulness (Table 8). But he has no common sense as a healthy person, and therefore rarely engages in dialogue. The Madman’s thought process was sinking into the primordial fear lurking behind Chinese society at the time.
Regarding cannibals, there are the people who, as children, never cannibalize. Therefore, alarm bells are set ringing for the people of future generations.
Disturbance of thinking
[Brain activity 6]
Process of cognitive ability ①Perception and attention
Abstraction of elements
[Perception] The cry of mother.
[Attention] Comparison.
Process of cognitive ability ②Learning and memory
Abstraction of elements
[External input] His five-year-old little sister was cannibalized by his old brother.
[Schema] When his parents are sick, he repays them by giving his flesh.
[Existing knowledge] Repayment is virtue.
[Learning] Madman felt a pang of sadness hearing his mother’s cry on that day.
Process of cognitive ability ③Planning and reasoning
Abstraction of elements
[Planning] Madman will reform cannibals.
[Problem analysis] There are records of cannibalism for four thousand years. Madman knows. He rarely meets a civilized human being.
[Problem resolution] Save children.
[Reasoning] There may be some children who never cannibalize.
The story of the Madman is summarized as follows. If people give him a mysterious glare and they would cannibalize him, they could be cannibals. But if they could cross a line, they could become civilized human beings. While they are cannibals, however, they teach their children cannibalism, and therefore future generations will become and raise cannibals.
4 Conclusion
I analyzed Luxun’s “A Madman’s Diary” using the method of cognitive linguistics to seek a synergic metaphor similar to “Thomas Mann and Fuzzy logic.” I obtained the synergic metaphor of “Luxun and Chaos” by using the language and memory method to derive the chaotic features of non-linearity and indeterminism from the behavior of cannibals and the Madman.
花村嘉英著（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より translated by Yoshihisa Hanamura
Chaotic effect expected from “A Madman’s Diary” 7 －Consideration from cognitive linguistics
3.2 Indeterminism of the Madman and cannibals
Let us consider the behavior of the Madman and the symptoms of schizophrenia. The five symptoms described in Table 2 are also observable in the Madman’s behavior. For example, his idea that the villagers will eat him is delusional, believing that trivial things are attacking or undermining him. The Madman says that the eyes of people around him are all the same, which is a delusion.
Disturbance of attention is also observable in the Madman’s selective attention focusing too greatly on Guiweng Zhao, passersby, and children. He remembered that he had stepped on the cashbook of the teacher of Gujiu twenty years ago, which constitutes a distraction.
Disturbance of attention
[Brain activity 2]
Process of cognitive ability ①Perception and attention
Abstraction of elements
[Perception] The eyes of Guiweng Zhao are frightened of me.
[Attention] Comparison and research.
Process of cognitive ability ②Learning and memory
Abstraction of elements
[External input] The eyes of children are the same as those of Guiweng Zhao.
[Schema] Eyes.
[Existing knowledge] The eyes of Guiweng Zhao and the cashbook of the teacher of Gujiu.
[Learning] They looked at me, scared and frightened.
Process of cognitive ability ③Planning and reasoning
Abstraction of elements
[Planning]Madman studies things.
[Problem analysis] Why do they look at me? Their parents taught them.
[Problem resolution] When one disparages a good person, he marks them with a circle. When one defends a bad person, he receives praise. Madman does not understand their ideas at all.
[Reasoning] They will eat someone.
The Madman is not inherently evil. However, if anyone would disparage a good person, he would be marked with a small circle, and if anyone would defend a bad person, he would be praised. Therefore, slightly different inputs can lead to entirely different outputs.
Normally, brothers approach each other. But when the Madman found the character of cannibals in a history book, his madness was already awakening. Therefore, the slightly different input of the two types of men led to indeterminism.
The Madman’s behavior also exhibits auditory hallucination, such as feigned laughter and an episode in a dream.
Auditory hallucination
[Brain activity 3]
Process of cognitive ability ①Perception and attention
Abstraction of elements
[Perception] His brother brings a doctor along.
[Attention] Degree of obesity.
Process of cognitive ability ②Learning and memory
Abstraction of elements
[External input] If he would get some rest, he could regain his health.
[Schema] Rest.
[Existing knowledge] If he gets rest, he would become obese.
[Learning] They can eat a lot. What a laugh!
Process of cognitive ability ③Planning and reasoning
Abstraction of elements
[Planning] Madman will reform cannibals. First, he attempts to reform his brother.
[Problem analysis] He asked a man in a dream whether cannibalism is right. Could be. That was always it.
[Problem resolution] If cannibals could lose the idea, they could feel comfortable.
[Reasoning] They encourage and check each other, and therefore they never step across a line even if it means death.
The reasoning of Table 5 is grounded in the evidence that his older brother is a cannibal.
花村嘉英著（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より translated by Yoshihisa Hanamura
Let us consider the behavior of the Madman and the symptoms of schizophrenia. The five symptoms described in Table 2 are also observable in the Madman’s behavior. For example, his idea that the villagers will eat him is delusional, believing that trivial things are attacking or undermining him. The Madman says that the eyes of people around him are all the same, which is a delusion.
Disturbance of attention is also observable in the Madman’s selective attention focusing too greatly on Guiweng Zhao, passersby, and children. He remembered that he had stepped on the cashbook of the teacher of Gujiu twenty years ago, which constitutes a distraction.
Disturbance of attention
[Brain activity 2]
Process of cognitive ability ①Perception and attention
Abstraction of elements
[Perception] The eyes of Guiweng Zhao are frightened of me.
[Attention] Comparison and research.
Process of cognitive ability ②Learning and memory
Abstraction of elements
[External input] The eyes of children are the same as those of Guiweng Zhao.
[Schema] Eyes.
[Existing knowledge] The eyes of Guiweng Zhao and the cashbook of the teacher of Gujiu.
[Learning] They looked at me, scared and frightened.
Process of cognitive ability ③Planning and reasoning
Abstraction of elements
[Planning]Madman studies things.
[Problem analysis] Why do they look at me? Their parents taught them.
[Problem resolution] When one disparages a good person, he marks them with a circle. When one defends a bad person, he receives praise. Madman does not understand their ideas at all.
[Reasoning] They will eat someone.
The Madman is not inherently evil. However, if anyone would disparage a good person, he would be marked with a small circle, and if anyone would defend a bad person, he would be praised. Therefore, slightly different inputs can lead to entirely different outputs.
Normally, brothers approach each other. But when the Madman found the character of cannibals in a history book, his madness was already awakening. Therefore, the slightly different input of the two types of men led to indeterminism.
The Madman’s behavior also exhibits auditory hallucination, such as feigned laughter and an episode in a dream.
Auditory hallucination
[Brain activity 3]
Process of cognitive ability ①Perception and attention
Abstraction of elements
[Perception] His brother brings a doctor along.
[Attention] Degree of obesity.
Process of cognitive ability ②Learning and memory
Abstraction of elements
[External input] If he would get some rest, he could regain his health.
[Schema] Rest.
[Existing knowledge] If he gets rest, he would become obese.
[Learning] They can eat a lot. What a laugh!
Process of cognitive ability ③Planning and reasoning
Abstraction of elements
[Planning] Madman will reform cannibals. First, he attempts to reform his brother.
[Problem analysis] He asked a man in a dream whether cannibalism is right. Could be. That was always it.
[Problem resolution] If cannibals could lose the idea, they could feel comfortable.
[Reasoning] They encourage and check each other, and therefore they never step across a line even if it means death.
The reasoning of Table 5 is grounded in the evidence that his older brother is a cannibal.
花村嘉英著（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より translated by Yoshihisa Hanamura
Chaotic effect expected from “A Madman’s Diary” 6 －Consideration from cognitive linguistics
3 Paranoia is schizophrenia
3.1 Non-linearity of cannibals
I apply the behavior of the Madman to the cognitive process described in Table 1 and confirm each scene. I adopt terms provided in square brackets “[]”as the elements of the process.
Non-linearity (delusional mood)
[Brain activity 1]
Process of cognitive ability ①Perception and attention
Abstraction of elements
[Perception] The optic nerve of Madman greeted the eyes of Guiweng Zhao. He realized that the eyes of another seven or eight persons, a passerby, and children are the same as those of Guiweng Zhao.
[Attention] Grouping and comparison.
Process of cognitive ability ②Learning and memory
Abstraction of elements
[External input] Madman detected their code.
[Schema] Their speech and laugh are poison and sword. Their teeth are an instrument to cannibalize.
[Existing knowledge] The character of cannibals is written in the history book.
[Learning] The people who grin and look mysteriously will cannibalize me.
Process of cognitive ability ③Planning and reasoning
Abstraction of elements
[Planning] Wakefulness from madness.
[Problem analysis] The story is based in feudalist China, which was based on the Confucian doctrine. However, Luxun touched the spirit of modern Europe in Japan and fell into madness.
[Problem resolution] Cannibalism can be detected, but people continue to practice it. People would be happy if they abandon cannibalism.
[Reasoning] The people who are autoregulatory by practicing cannibalism really exist. The behavior which steps across a line to be a true person is disorderly and unpredictable.
The cognitive process model (Table 3) reveals non-linearity in the Madman’s brain activity. The Madman’s behavior seems to be orderly at first glance. A passerby, children, the lady whom the Madman met on the street, Laowu Chen, and a peasant look at the Madman with the same eyes as Guiweng Zhao. Horrifyingly. They may cannibalize the Madman. However, I wonder whether the behavior that crosses the line to become a civilized human being occurs in a predictable order. There is no reliable story line, and therefore the behavior of cannibals could lead to the nonlinearity of chaos.
花村嘉英著（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より translated by Yoshihisa Hanamura
3.1 Non-linearity of cannibals
I apply the behavior of the Madman to the cognitive process described in Table 1 and confirm each scene. I adopt terms provided in square brackets “[]”as the elements of the process.
Non-linearity (delusional mood)
[Brain activity 1]
Process of cognitive ability ①Perception and attention
Abstraction of elements
[Perception] The optic nerve of Madman greeted the eyes of Guiweng Zhao. He realized that the eyes of another seven or eight persons, a passerby, and children are the same as those of Guiweng Zhao.
[Attention] Grouping and comparison.
Process of cognitive ability ②Learning and memory
Abstraction of elements
[External input] Madman detected their code.
[Schema] Their speech and laugh are poison and sword. Their teeth are an instrument to cannibalize.
[Existing knowledge] The character of cannibals is written in the history book.
[Learning] The people who grin and look mysteriously will cannibalize me.
Process of cognitive ability ③Planning and reasoning
Abstraction of elements
[Planning] Wakefulness from madness.
[Problem analysis] The story is based in feudalist China, which was based on the Confucian doctrine. However, Luxun touched the spirit of modern Europe in Japan and fell into madness.
[Problem resolution] Cannibalism can be detected, but people continue to practice it. People would be happy if they abandon cannibalism.
[Reasoning] The people who are autoregulatory by practicing cannibalism really exist. The behavior which steps across a line to be a true person is disorderly and unpredictable.
The cognitive process model (Table 3) reveals non-linearity in the Madman’s brain activity. The Madman’s behavior seems to be orderly at first glance. A passerby, children, the lady whom the Madman met on the street, Laowu Chen, and a peasant look at the Madman with the same eyes as Guiweng Zhao. Horrifyingly. They may cannibalize the Madman. However, I wonder whether the behavior that crosses the line to become a civilized human being occurs in a predictable order. There is no reliable story line, and therefore the behavior of cannibals could lead to the nonlinearity of chaos.
花村嘉英著（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より translated by Yoshihisa Hanamura
Chaotic effect expected from “A Madman’s Diary” 5 －Consideration from cognitive linguistics
2 Cognitive process of “A Madman’s Diary”
2.1 Madman and madness
Luxun first wrote “A Madman’s Diary” (1918) in the colloquial style in the tradition of modern Chinese literature. He perceived contemporary Chinese society as a cannibalistic society and emphasized the mental reconstruction of the Chinese people as a means of rescue because the Chinese dynasty had misused the teachings of Confucius to establish the feudal society of cannibals.
The Madman suffered from paranoia, and the traditional treatment of the Madman in China is different from that in Japan. There are three perspectives on the Madman in China.
① The madness is a disguise and the person is a warrior of anti-feudalism.
② The madness is real and he is not a warrior of anti-feudalism, but the symbol charged with anti-feudalistic thought.
③ The madness represents a warrior of anti-feudalism caused by persecution.
On the other hand, in Japan, the Madman awakens from madness.
I also consider that the Madman awakens from madness, and so I correlate Luxun’s persuasion of the Chinese people to a cognitive process. That is, when human beings were barbarians, they were certainly cannibals. However, those who tried to be better and stopped practicing cannibalism could be civilized human beings. I consider a decision-making theory using risk avoidance saying that such effort is important.
Why did the Madman fall into madness? And when did he become sick with paranoia? “A Madman’s Diary” begins with the statement that he saw a beautiful moon for the first time in 30 years, which suggests that a long time must have passed after onset. In fact, the symptom of Madman’s disease had emerged during his junior high school years.
Luxun learned the modern Europe thinking to emphasize individuality during his study in Japan (1902–1909). He thought that it was a completely different idea from Chinese feudalism which depended on the Confucian doctrine. The madness of the Madman may have resulted from this thought.
Different stories describe the Madman’s period of wakefulness. For example:
① when the Madman opened the history books and learned about cannibals .
② when his sister was eaten by his older brother because the Madman realized that his family was connected with the world of cannibals and that he also remained in it.
③ when he appealed for the need to help children to revive Chinese people.
I associate these scenes and the Madman’s behavior with the cognitive process described in Table 1. They approach the analytic image and finally reach the generative image. As to a comparison table, please see Japanese.
2.2 Symptoms of schizophrenia
Paranoia is a symptom of schizophrenia wherein the subject cannot control feeling and thought. Schizophrenia is most often caused by deficiency of the neurotransmitter chemokine. Table 2 shows the dominant symptoms of schizophrenia.
Symptoms of schizophrenia
Symptom Delusional mood
Description Delusion is one of the most prominent symptoms of schizophrenia and can be explained as a staunch belief in something that is clearly false. Delusions can also be mood-congruent or mood-incongruent.
Symptom Attention deficiency
Description This symptom is seen in the preclinical stage of schizophrenia. The patient responds to a certain stimulus without a look at noise or involves the risk of attention deficiency.
Symptom Auditory hallucination
Description A patient suffering from auditory hallucination is often seen talking to himself and breaking into feigned laughter or is even seen crying. Auditory hallucinations also include criticism and calumny.
Symptom Disturbance of ego
Description In this symptom, self-other consciousness breaks up and the ego boundary becomes fuzzy. The patient believes that everyone knows his secret and he feels his own thoughts spread around.
Symptom Disturbance of thinking
Description The patient’s behavior is disorganized and thoughts are integrated loosely. His conversations become confused and the patient cannot speak logically.
What type of person tends to suffer from schizophrenia? A person with schizoid is often unsocial, introverted, lonely, and passive-dependent is more likely to suffer from schizophrenia. A person who was bullied in early childhood does not fight back and has a reactive attitude.
The symptoms of schizophrenia are usually divided into positive and negative categories. The former occurs with the pathological activity of the central nervous system, such as hallucination, a monologue, delusion, and excitement. The latter comprises the psychological inertia that occurs with decreased activity of the central nervous system, such as decreased motivation. Egorrhea symptom and broadcasting of thought are also sometimes observed.
Another impairment in cognitive function is that a schizophrenic patient tends to worry about unrelated stories, which may lead to attention deficit. A psychiatrist will tend to first detect decreased cognitive function of short-term memory and attentiveness as symptoms before positive or negative symptoms emerge.
A person suffering from schizophrenia can easily become stressed and overwhelmed with information. Normally, the information from sense organs is filtered by the hypothalamus in the brain. However, when information is more than what the brain can process, the hypothalamus filter functions. A schizophrenic patient cannot process normal amounts of information properly and thus exhibits symptoms of disorganization.
花村嘉英著（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より translated by Yoshihisa Hanamura
2.1 Madman and madness
Luxun first wrote “A Madman’s Diary” (1918) in the colloquial style in the tradition of modern Chinese literature. He perceived contemporary Chinese society as a cannibalistic society and emphasized the mental reconstruction of the Chinese people as a means of rescue because the Chinese dynasty had misused the teachings of Confucius to establish the feudal society of cannibals.
The Madman suffered from paranoia, and the traditional treatment of the Madman in China is different from that in Japan. There are three perspectives on the Madman in China.
① The madness is a disguise and the person is a warrior of anti-feudalism.
② The madness is real and he is not a warrior of anti-feudalism, but the symbol charged with anti-feudalistic thought.
③ The madness represents a warrior of anti-feudalism caused by persecution.
On the other hand, in Japan, the Madman awakens from madness.
I also consider that the Madman awakens from madness, and so I correlate Luxun’s persuasion of the Chinese people to a cognitive process. That is, when human beings were barbarians, they were certainly cannibals. However, those who tried to be better and stopped practicing cannibalism could be civilized human beings. I consider a decision-making theory using risk avoidance saying that such effort is important.
Why did the Madman fall into madness? And when did he become sick with paranoia? “A Madman’s Diary” begins with the statement that he saw a beautiful moon for the first time in 30 years, which suggests that a long time must have passed after onset. In fact, the symptom of Madman’s disease had emerged during his junior high school years.
Luxun learned the modern Europe thinking to emphasize individuality during his study in Japan (1902–1909). He thought that it was a completely different idea from Chinese feudalism which depended on the Confucian doctrine. The madness of the Madman may have resulted from this thought.
Different stories describe the Madman’s period of wakefulness. For example:
① when the Madman opened the history books and learned about cannibals .
② when his sister was eaten by his older brother because the Madman realized that his family was connected with the world of cannibals and that he also remained in it.
③ when he appealed for the need to help children to revive Chinese people.
I associate these scenes and the Madman’s behavior with the cognitive process described in Table 1. They approach the analytic image and finally reach the generative image. As to a comparison table, please see Japanese.
2.2 Symptoms of schizophrenia
Paranoia is a symptom of schizophrenia wherein the subject cannot control feeling and thought. Schizophrenia is most often caused by deficiency of the neurotransmitter chemokine. Table 2 shows the dominant symptoms of schizophrenia.
Symptoms of schizophrenia
Symptom Delusional mood
Description Delusion is one of the most prominent symptoms of schizophrenia and can be explained as a staunch belief in something that is clearly false. Delusions can also be mood-congruent or mood-incongruent.
Symptom Attention deficiency
Description This symptom is seen in the preclinical stage of schizophrenia. The patient responds to a certain stimulus without a look at noise or involves the risk of attention deficiency.
Symptom Auditory hallucination
Description A patient suffering from auditory hallucination is often seen talking to himself and breaking into feigned laughter or is even seen crying. Auditory hallucinations also include criticism and calumny.
Symptom Disturbance of ego
Description In this symptom, self-other consciousness breaks up and the ego boundary becomes fuzzy. The patient believes that everyone knows his secret and he feels his own thoughts spread around.
Symptom Disturbance of thinking
Description The patient’s behavior is disorganized and thoughts are integrated loosely. His conversations become confused and the patient cannot speak logically.
What type of person tends to suffer from schizophrenia? A person with schizoid is often unsocial, introverted, lonely, and passive-dependent is more likely to suffer from schizophrenia. A person who was bullied in early childhood does not fight back and has a reactive attitude.
The symptoms of schizophrenia are usually divided into positive and negative categories. The former occurs with the pathological activity of the central nervous system, such as hallucination, a monologue, delusion, and excitement. The latter comprises the psychological inertia that occurs with decreased activity of the central nervous system, such as decreased motivation. Egorrhea symptom and broadcasting of thought are also sometimes observed.
Another impairment in cognitive function is that a schizophrenic patient tends to worry about unrelated stories, which may lead to attention deficit. A psychiatrist will tend to first detect decreased cognitive function of short-term memory and attentiveness as symptoms before positive or negative symptoms emerge.
A person suffering from schizophrenia can easily become stressed and overwhelmed with information. Normally, the information from sense organs is filtered by the hypothalamus in the brain. However, when information is more than what the brain can process, the hypothalamus filter functions. A schizophrenic patient cannot process normal amounts of information properly and thus exhibits symptoms of disorganization.
花村嘉英著（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より translated by Yoshihisa Hanamura
Chaotic effect expected from “A Madman’s Diary” 4 －Consideration from cognitive linguistics
1.3 Metaphor of synergy
The metaphors that cognitive linguistics addresses include the following: conventional metaphor, image metaphor, and poetic metaphor. Conventional metaphor is less conscious because it is based on ordinary experience. Image metaphor is less conventionalized and calls for sensing, especially visual perception. It is found largely in literary works and in creative image that lingers. Poetic metaphor uses several metaphors simultaneously, thereby creating rich images through very few words.
The present study examines synergic metaphor as the broader concept of the aforementioned metaphors. Traditional vertical research seeks to draw A’ and B’ from A and B. On the other hand, synergic research seeks to draw heterogeneous C from A and B. A synergic metaphor follows a normal mapping, such that A is a source domain, C is a target domain, and B is the mapping. I assume literature and calculation as a synergic metaphor, and therefore A is humanity, B is cognitive science, and C is brain science.
[Figure 1 Synergic metaphor]
Source domain A Humanity→Mapping B Cognitive science→Target domain C Brain science→Mapping B Cognitive science
I attempted a synergic analysis through logical grammar to create the metaphor of “Thomas Mann and Fuzzy logic.” I have also considered the combinations of “Luxun and Chaos” and “Ogai and Feeling” by using the literary works of Luxun and Ogai in an effort to create a synergic metaphor by language different from “Thomas Mann and Fuzzy logic.”
I consider the different thinking patterns in Chinese and Japanese in my paper on Luxun’s “The True Story of Ah Q”. He disliked the mental illness called ma-ma-hu-hu and strongly appealed to the Chinese people about it through literary works. The second chapter explains the chaotic effect seen in “Ah Q” by linking “ma-ma-hu-hu” to a chaotic model.
Traditional vertical research assumes the brain activity of readers because they accept these literary works. However, the author’s brain activity is important in synergic metaphor. Therefore, I establish the target domain C as the mechanism of memory in the formula (Figure 1) to derive a heterogeneous C from A and B. I also assume the return from C to B at the same time.
When compared with other synergic combinations, such as management engineering and social systems or patents (law and engineering), it is very difficult for calculation and literature to connect B and C. One sometimes combines A and B and cannot derive a heterogeneous C. I used the memory-related behavior of Ah Q from “The True Story of Ah Q” and associated it synchronously and asynchronously to connect chaos and memory.
For example, when Ah Q recognizes the eyes of a hungry wolf, he first needs to recognize the continuous object. Ah Q’s neuron cluster of the optic nerve receives the information from the area of the wolf’s eyes and the other space, and each field represents both a synchronous and asynchronous relationship. When the wolf’s eyes move, the synchronous point changes. Therefore, synchronization and asynchronization must be dealt with promptly. Chaos makes such response easy.
“A Madman’s Diary” is a story wherein the paranoid Madman awakens from madness and repeatedly persuades cannibals to reform. This thought of the Madman depends on whether cannibals can step across a line. If they could step across that line, they would be civilized human beings.
I will correlate the points of the Madman’s decision making and those of the cannibals with fuzzy logic and chaos. As stated at the beginning of this paper, chaos consists of two essential features. One is non-linearity, which comprises disorderly, unpredictable movement, and the other is indeterminism, wherein outputs are entirely different from largely similar inputs.
花村嘉英著（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より translated by Yoshihisa Hanamura
The metaphors that cognitive linguistics addresses include the following: conventional metaphor, image metaphor, and poetic metaphor. Conventional metaphor is less conscious because it is based on ordinary experience. Image metaphor is less conventionalized and calls for sensing, especially visual perception. It is found largely in literary works and in creative image that lingers. Poetic metaphor uses several metaphors simultaneously, thereby creating rich images through very few words.
The present study examines synergic metaphor as the broader concept of the aforementioned metaphors. Traditional vertical research seeks to draw A’ and B’ from A and B. On the other hand, synergic research seeks to draw heterogeneous C from A and B. A synergic metaphor follows a normal mapping, such that A is a source domain, C is a target domain, and B is the mapping. I assume literature and calculation as a synergic metaphor, and therefore A is humanity, B is cognitive science, and C is brain science.
[Figure 1 Synergic metaphor]
Source domain A Humanity→Mapping B Cognitive science→Target domain C Brain science→Mapping B Cognitive science
I attempted a synergic analysis through logical grammar to create the metaphor of “Thomas Mann and Fuzzy logic.” I have also considered the combinations of “Luxun and Chaos” and “Ogai and Feeling” by using the literary works of Luxun and Ogai in an effort to create a synergic metaphor by language different from “Thomas Mann and Fuzzy logic.”
I consider the different thinking patterns in Chinese and Japanese in my paper on Luxun’s “The True Story of Ah Q”. He disliked the mental illness called ma-ma-hu-hu and strongly appealed to the Chinese people about it through literary works. The second chapter explains the chaotic effect seen in “Ah Q” by linking “ma-ma-hu-hu” to a chaotic model.
Traditional vertical research assumes the brain activity of readers because they accept these literary works. However, the author’s brain activity is important in synergic metaphor. Therefore, I establish the target domain C as the mechanism of memory in the formula (Figure 1) to derive a heterogeneous C from A and B. I also assume the return from C to B at the same time.
When compared with other synergic combinations, such as management engineering and social systems or patents (law and engineering), it is very difficult for calculation and literature to connect B and C. One sometimes combines A and B and cannot derive a heterogeneous C. I used the memory-related behavior of Ah Q from “The True Story of Ah Q” and associated it synchronously and asynchronously to connect chaos and memory.
For example, when Ah Q recognizes the eyes of a hungry wolf, he first needs to recognize the continuous object. Ah Q’s neuron cluster of the optic nerve receives the information from the area of the wolf’s eyes and the other space, and each field represents both a synchronous and asynchronous relationship. When the wolf’s eyes move, the synchronous point changes. Therefore, synchronization and asynchronization must be dealt with promptly. Chaos makes such response easy.
“A Madman’s Diary” is a story wherein the paranoid Madman awakens from madness and repeatedly persuades cannibals to reform. This thought of the Madman depends on whether cannibals can step across a line. If they could step across that line, they would be civilized human beings.
I will correlate the points of the Madman’s decision making and those of the cannibals with fuzzy logic and chaos. As stated at the beginning of this paper, chaos consists of two essential features. One is non-linearity, which comprises disorderly, unpredictable movement, and the other is indeterminism, wherein outputs are entirely different from largely similar inputs.
花村嘉英著（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より translated by Yoshihisa Hanamura
Chaotic effect expected from “A Madman’s Diary” 3 －Consideration from cognitive linguistics
1.2 Role of metaphor
The reasoning based on normal experiences deals with a concrete category. But how can one deal with an abstract category in a literary work? When an author seeks to use an abstract idea to represent any concrete object, a relationship is established between the abstract idea and the concrete object, which is called a metaphor.
To represent a metaphor graphically, a map from a source domain to a target domain is established. This mechanism creates an abstract idea and is therefore also considered as the expansion of a meaning by language. Some ideas become habitual, and a mapping is established at the level of thought and concept. The problem does not comprise any expression in language.
For example, one can use “A is B” to represent a metaphor. Here, A is a target domain and B is a source domain. A metaphor serves to create an impression of something otherwise unnoticeable. The structure of the source domain is also mapped in the form of integrating a target domain, thus forming an invisible structure. Human reasoning would serve to identify the related matters in the structure.
Metaphor (1): If Huanghelou is a symbol for Wuhan, the first bridge is Wuhan’s aorta.
The first half of the conditional (1) uses a metaphor and the second half uses the reasoning from it to explain the corresponding element. The problem of (1) is not true-false, but something like it. Reasoning by metaphor is also a discovery method toward a solution. An analogy could certainly be effective, even if conceptual domains are worlds apart. There is no guarantee that it is true, but if one applies existing knowledge to understand an unknown field, one is at least headed in the right direction.
Furthermore, cognitive linguistics pursues research on the methods of understanding while receiving information. The method of seeing the world objectively differs by society or culture because the level of different thought can be studied as linguistic difference. The research of Sapir and his disciple Whorf on language and thought is the most widely known.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The structure of the mother tongue has an effect on thought independent of a language, especially the cognitive ability such as categorizing or reasoning.
The common interpretation of this hypothesis holds that a language has considerable effect on thought. But which aspects of thought does a language affect? The mechanism of perception and memory is not determined by language. For thought, the higher cognitive ability of how to perceive things seems to be the problem. When I consider which memory is stored easily or how memories connect with each other, I find the outline and distinction of a speech community.
花村嘉英著（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より translated by Yoshihisa Hanamura
The reasoning based on normal experiences deals with a concrete category. But how can one deal with an abstract category in a literary work? When an author seeks to use an abstract idea to represent any concrete object, a relationship is established between the abstract idea and the concrete object, which is called a metaphor.
To represent a metaphor graphically, a map from a source domain to a target domain is established. This mechanism creates an abstract idea and is therefore also considered as the expansion of a meaning by language. Some ideas become habitual, and a mapping is established at the level of thought and concept. The problem does not comprise any expression in language.
For example, one can use “A is B” to represent a metaphor. Here, A is a target domain and B is a source domain. A metaphor serves to create an impression of something otherwise unnoticeable. The structure of the source domain is also mapped in the form of integrating a target domain, thus forming an invisible structure. Human reasoning would serve to identify the related matters in the structure.
Metaphor (1): If Huanghelou is a symbol for Wuhan, the first bridge is Wuhan’s aorta.
The first half of the conditional (1) uses a metaphor and the second half uses the reasoning from it to explain the corresponding element. The problem of (1) is not true-false, but something like it. Reasoning by metaphor is also a discovery method toward a solution. An analogy could certainly be effective, even if conceptual domains are worlds apart. There is no guarantee that it is true, but if one applies existing knowledge to understand an unknown field, one is at least headed in the right direction.
Furthermore, cognitive linguistics pursues research on the methods of understanding while receiving information. The method of seeing the world objectively differs by society or culture because the level of different thought can be studied as linguistic difference. The research of Sapir and his disciple Whorf on language and thought is the most widely known.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The structure of the mother tongue has an effect on thought independent of a language, especially the cognitive ability such as categorizing or reasoning.
The common interpretation of this hypothesis holds that a language has considerable effect on thought. But which aspects of thought does a language affect? The mechanism of perception and memory is not determined by language. For thought, the higher cognitive ability of how to perceive things seems to be the problem. When I consider which memory is stored easily or how memories connect with each other, I find the outline and distinction of a speech community.
花村嘉英著（2015）「从认知语言学的角度浅析鲁迅作品－魯迅をシナジーで読む」より translated by Yoshihisa Hanamura
