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10.211.2081/div>). Netsuke served as anchors or counterweights for inrô and sagemono (). A single cord was threaded through a cord channel on one side of the suspended container, through two holes (himotoshi) in the netsuke, then through the other side of the container, and knotted on the underside of the container (). A decorative bead, or ojime, slid along the cord between the netsuke and sagemono, allowing the user to open and close the container ().

The wearer would slip the netsuke under and dangle it over the obi sash, allowing the sagemono to hang suspended between waist and hip. In order to access the contents of the sagemono, the wearer slipped the netsukebehind the obi sash, liberating the ensemble. By sliding the ojime toward the netsuke, the contents of the container were easily accessible.

Primary sources referencing netsuke are relatively scant. Most of our knowledge about 
). They are carved in the round and often referred to as miniature sculptures, although unlike most sculptures, the underside of the base is also completely carved (). Rounded forms (manju), named after the round sweet bean cakes they resemble, were also quite popular (;). Another conventional netsuke shape is the kagami, or mirror, consisting of a round, bowl-shaped base and a lid fashioned of a flat disk of metal. A variety of metals such as brass, bronze, copper, gold, iron, pewter, and silver were used (). Two alloys, shakudô (copper and gold) and shibuichi (copper and silver), were especially favored for their range of colors and patina.

Carvers drew on varied themes for these accessories−nature, mythical tales, historical figures, masks used in theatrical performances, and gods and demons (). Other subgroups suggest a fascination with erotica, the grotesque, or parodies and satirical depictions of elite culture. Given that netsuke were small and easily concealed, portrayals of ribald themes or satirical iconography could easily be hidden from the Tokugawa military authorities, thereby providing the townspeople with a whimsical and in some cases subversive outlet from officially sanctioned
 prevailing during the Edo period.

During the late nineteenth century, netsuke transitioned from functional and fashionable accessories to objets d’art favored by Westerners for their exquisite carving and diminutive size. Upon the opening of Japan’s ports to foreign trade in 1854 and the subsequent introduction of Western-style suits and uniforms, the kimono receded into the confines of the private sphere. Once the carvings ceased to be necessary accoutrements for everyday male dress, demand for netsuke as a fashion accessory declined as well. But with the increasing number of foreigners residing in Japan, the market for netsuke as a collector’s item expanded. Most netsuke can be held in the palm of one’s hand, rendering it a perfect souvenir of sojourns to what was then an “exotic East.” Compact and portable by design, netsukewere exported in large numbers. The Russian jeweler Peter Carl Fabergé (1846–1920), known for his eponymous Fabergé eggs, was entranced by netsuke and became an avid collector. The majority of the netsuke in the Museum’s collection were presented by Mrs. (Margaret) Russell Sage (1828–1918), one of the Museum’s great benefactors, in 1910. Other bequests came from New Yorkers who flourished in the late nineteenth century, including the chief designer for Tiffany and Co. Edward C. Moore (1827–1891), the founder of the B. Altman and Co. store Benjamin Altman (1840–1913), the antiquarian Stephen Whitney Phoenix (1838–1891), and Louisine Havemeyer (1855–1929), wife of the sugar magnate Henry O. Havemeyer (1847–1907).

Bowing to traditions established by Japanese carvers of the Edo period, contemporary carvers infuse netsuke with a vitality and freshness while simultaneously honoring their original, functional attributes. No longer required to employ compact designs with smooth surfaces to prevent damage to silk kimono, nor sturdy materials to avoid the risk of breakage, modern and contemporary designers are free to incorporate new materials and unusual shapes into their work.
Netsuke crafted by contemporary carvers unveil the international appeal of what was once a quintessentially Japanese tradition. Until the 1960s, most professional netsuke carvers were Japanese nationals. Beginning in the late 1960s, non-Japanese began carving netsuke, and the total number of international carvers has grown to over one hundred. Today, netsuke are produced and appreciated by carvers and collectors from around the world. One of the world’s most renowned collections of contemporary netsuke, amassed by the late Imperial Prince Takamado Norihito (1954–2002), attests to the ways in which innovation and expertise can grow from a rich historical tradition, even on an astonishingly small scale.

Terry Satsuki Milhaupt
Independent Scholar